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 * __Gene Cloning with Bacterial Plasmids (Genetic Engineering)[[image:gene_cloning.gif width="190" height="449" align="right"]]__**


 * __Describe It:__** Plasmids are circular DNA that are in bacteria.


 * __Analyze It:__** The definition of gene cloning is when one cell takes one gene from one organism and inserts it into another so the organism will produce the desired protein. What happens is specific genes are inserted into the plasmid which is in the cell, the plasmid carries the gene out of the cell and gets put into a host cell. The host cell takes in the plasmid and produces the desired protein.


 * __Apply It:__** Genetic allows scientist to produce a protein product and also make many copies of a particular gene. This process allows scientist for harvest essential proteins (ex. Insulin).


 * __Synthesize:__** Genetic Engineering is closely related to farms. Farms only can grow certain foods depending on its location. This is just like bacteria, because bacteria can only progress in growth if its environment is just right, just as the food depends on its environment.


 * __Argue for or against it:__** Advocate, it allows scientist to produce and harvest proteins. This process is very important to diabetics, because this process allows scientist to produce and harvest insulin, which is a protein that diabetics need to have to live.

Sources: AP biology textbook, image and info from http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/transfer_and.php

__** Nucleic Acid Hybridization **__

__**Describe it**__: A single stranded nucleic acid that can be either RNA or DNA, which is also called a nucleic acid probe.



__**Analyze it:**__ Nucleic Acid Hybridization is a technique in which single stranded nucleic acids interact so that hybrids are formed by a molecules with the same complementary sequences. Scientist are able to detect a gene's DNA by its ability to base-pair with its complementary sequence using this technique. For each probe molecule, there will be a complementary hydrogen-bond to the desired gene. Once the clone carrying the desired gene is located, scientist can begin growing cells from that colony. Which then can be harvested and stored.

__**Apply it:**__ Scientist can use the desired genes for studies. They can also use them to make more copies of the desired genes. Nucleic Acid Hybridization can be used to detect and isolate specific sequences.

__** Synthesize: **__ This technique is very similar to a log book at a library. Each book has a specific number attached to it. The person has to go find that book using the book number to be able to check it out.

__**Argue for or against it:**__ Advocate, because scientist can use this technique to harvest many different types of genes.

Sources: AP biology textbook, image and information from __ [] ,__

=__Genomic Library__=
 * Describe it**: A “library” made of bacteria that houses “books” of a specific DNA. The collection is usually of many bacterial or phage clones. Each clone carries copies of a particular DNA segment from a foreign genome that has been integrated into the DNA vector. With a complete genomic library, the DNA segments cover the entire genome of the organism.


 * Analyze it**: Made of plasmid or phage vectors containing foreign DNA segments. Assembly begins with the help of restriction enzymes to break up the DNA into manageable chunks. These sections are organized and inserted into plasmids or phages and introduced to the bacteria. Different vectors can store differing amounts of DNA.

bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC): a type of vector used in library construction. Capable of storing 100-300 kb (100,000-300,000 base pairs). Basically a large plasmid.


 * Apply it**: Used to store specific information of the gene. The genomic library  can be stored or frozen for future reference. As long as it is kept in stable conditions, it can last for an extremely long time. They are often used in genetic research as the availability of the gene allows for its exploration. Gaining knowledge of the genome or mapping the genome (identifying locations of specific genes), helps researchers to understand more about the organism and point out mutations that may be responsible for abnormal conditions. A genomic library also aids in cloning specific genes for further study. By isolating the certain gene kept in the library, production of the gene can occur.


 * Synthesize**: A genomic library is quite similar to a bank in practice. One keeps his or her entire savings in the bank, and can remove portions when needed to use and increase one's possessions. A genomic library holds an organism's entire genome, whose specific genes can be taken out and copied or studied.


 * Argue**: A genomic library is a positive advantage to genetic research. It allows for storage and keeps DNA readily available for study.

Sources: AP Biology textbook, __[], http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-genomic-library.htm,__ Picture - http://www.web-books.com/MoBio/Free/Ch9B.htm

=__Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)__=


 * Describe it**: a technique for cloning DNA. A target sequence of DNA is heated and separated, cooled to let primers form and extension to occur. The number of DNA copies doubles with each cycle.[[image:PCR.jpg width="346" height="479" align="right"]]


 * Analyze it:** DNA strands are heated and separate. They are then cooled to allow DNA primers to hydrogen bond complementary to the original strand. DNA polymerase then extends the primers and creates complementary strands. The DNA polymerase must also be heat-stable, otherwise it would be denatured with the rest of the DNA strand and would need to be replaced each cycle.


 * Apply it:** Allows for DNA cloning with only a small amount of original material. This is a useful application in crime scene investigation, as even a single strand of hair can be used to identify the criminal. It’s also used for prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders and HIV research.


 * Synthesize**: PCR is similar to an investment. You put a little bit in and can get a lot in return. PCR results in a vast amount of clones because it doubles the number of DNA strands each cycle and occurs at a rapid rate. Not unlike a high interest rate on an investment.


 * Argue**: PCR is very advantageous due to its speed and specificity. However, it has a flaw in the amount of gene it can produce correctly. Errors are to be expected and can limit the number of flawless copies.

Sources: AP Biology textbook, http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/polymerase.php, scienceblogs.com


 * __Gel Electrophoresis[[image:20_08GelElectrophoresis.jpg width="486" height="440" align="right"]]__**


 * __Describe it:__** Is made up of a Electrophoresis box, gel, a power source, and DNA/RNA


 * __Analyze it:__** Gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the separation of DNA, RNA, or protein molecule fragments. They accomplish this by using a electric field applied to a gel. The phosphate in the DNA/RNA are negatively charged. In this technique the negatively charged moves toward the positive pole of the electrophoresis.


 * __Apply it:__** Used to separate the DNA/RNA and protein molecules by length. Gel Electrophoresis is also used in criminal investigations, to diagnose genetic diseases, and solve paternity cases.


 * __Synthesize:__** Gel Electrophoresis is like a Ice Cream truck in a neighborhood. The ice cream truck will represent a current attracting people ,which represent the fragments, to the ice cream truck.


 * __Argue:__** Advocate, this technique is great, because scientist are able to use in criminal cases, and also use it to diagnose genetic diseases.

Sources: http://www.colorado.edu/outreach/BSI/pdfs/gel_electrophoresis.pdf, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis,


 * __Plant Cloning__**




 * __Describe it:__** Very effect way to keep the best characteristics of plants in cycle.


 * __Analyze it:__** Scientist discovered that differentiated cells taken from a root of a plant could be cultured in nutrient medium. Scientist noticed single cells were began to divide. The single cells then formed an embryonic plant, which could then be planted and cultured in agar, later it was planted in soil. A single somatic plant cell was developed into a mature plant. It was a genetic duplicate of the parent plant.


 * __Apply it:__** Plant cloning is used to reproduce a plant with valuable characteristics, such as the ability to resist plant pathogens.


 * __Synthesize:__** This process is like asexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction the offspring is genetically the same as the parent. Thats the same case with plant cloning. The offspring is genetically the same as the parent.


 * __Argue:__** Advocate, because plant cloning is a great way to keep the best and most important characteristics of plants cycling.

Sources: AP Biology Textbook, http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/genetic/cloning1.htm

=__ Microarrays __=



**Describe**: A DNA microarray is made up of little pieces of a large amount of single-stranded DNA fragments that represent different genes. These pieces are tightly attached to a glass slide. Fluorescent colors are attached to each gene as well and indicate whether or not it is being expressed and if so how much. The color green indicates an expression in one sample, red in another, yellow in both, and black in neither. **Analyze:** DNA chip: the glass slide where all the DNA tightly fitted. Tissue sample: the organism tha t the sample is taken from and the mRNA is isolated from. Reverse transcription: occurs with the mRNA sample and results in cDNA. The cDNA is then added to the microarray and will hybridize with any of the complementary genes. This bonding is shown by the corresponding color. **Apply it**: A microarray is used to analyze gene expression. Microarrays have been used to compare cancerous cells to normal ones and have led to a better understanding of cancerous gene expression and better therapy techniques. Also leading research on the human genome and expression of genetic diseases. Such information can result in better treatments and pre vention of disease. **Synthesize**: A microarray is similar to a video recorder. It shows everything that is happening at the moment and is available for further study. A microarray shows what is being expressed in the gene at a given time allowing for more research and information on the genes. **Argue**: Microarrays are incredible beneficial and advantageous. They contain a large amount of genes in a very small size and has led to speedy examination of gene e xpression. This growing technique may also result in the exploration of new gene categories and families and may reveal new gene patterns. Sources: AP Biology Te ﻿ xtbook; **__ [] ;__ bio.cse.ohio-state.edu **


 * __ Gene Therapy[[image:400px-Gene_therapy.jpg width="440" height="330" align="right"]] __**


 * __ Describe it: __** Vectors which are used to carry the gene, act like viruses.


 * __ Analyze it: __** Gene therapy is the insertion, alteration, or the removal of genes within individual cells and tissues. The gene carriers are called vectors, which is a virus that has genetically altered DNA.


 * __ Apply it: __** This technique is used for correcting genes that have been the cause of disease development. This technique is mostly used on disease that are very lethal: such as, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and sickle-cell anemia.


 * __ Synthesize: __** Gene therapy is similar to fixing a car. If a part of your car is damaged, it usually gets fixed. That's very similar to gene therapy because if a cell is damaged by a disease, scientist can but a gene in that cell to replace the part that was damaged by the disease.


 * __ Argue: __** Advocate, gene therapy is a great way to decrease the number of people that have lethal diseases. I am not an advocate of gene therapy as this moment though. Gene therapy is not yet approved by the FDA. For now its for experimental purposes only. Gene therapy has had a major setback, because in 1999 someone died after having multiple organ failures within 4 days of starting treatment.

sources: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy


 * __ Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) __**
 * __ Describe it: __** RFLPs are differences in DNA. It can exist in coding and non coding DNA.


 * __ Analyze it: __** This technique is used by scientist to follow a particular sequence of DNA as it is passed on by other cells. Restriction enzymes cut up the genes, then are put into a Gel Electrophoresis, which separate the DNA sequences. A singular nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) makes the restriction site unrecognizable by the restriction enzyme so the restriction enzyme will not cut that gene.


 * __ Apply it: __** This technique is used in paternity cases or criminal cases to determine the source of DNA. This technique can also be used to determine the disease status of an individual. It most commonly used in DNA profiling.


 * __ Synthesize: __** This technique is similar to a relay race. Since the this technique allows scientist to follow certain DNA sequences as its passed on to other cells, its like a relay race. The baton gets passed around by the runners on during a realy race.


 * __ Argue: __** This technique is a great way to follow hereditary diseases to tell if someone has the disease or not.

Sources: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/genomics/method/RFLP.html

<span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Transgenic Animals (Genetically Modified Organisms)** <span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Describe:** A genotype of one organism can be introduced into another organism, even of a different species. The gene could then be available in large quantities. <span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Analyze:** Scientists accomplish this feat by first taking the eggs from the recipient species and fertilize them //in vitro//, they then take the cloned desired gene and insert it into the nuclei of the foreign gene. Some of the cells are able to express the desired gene. The embryos are then placed in a surrogate mother. The successfully developed animal will be a transgenic animal. This process is called DNA Microinjection and is most widely used. <span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Apply:** Transgenic animals are especially useful when large quantities of a desired gene are needed. They can actually act as pharmaceutical factories, because certain genes will be available for use. For example, a human blood protein antithrombin can be inserted into a goat and the product can be secreted from the goat’s milk and be available for use. <span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Synthesize:** Using transgenic animals as a means of harvesting desired genes is similar to specific farming. Farmers no which areas will help a plant yield its best produce. By using transgenic animals, the product (desired gene), is made in the most effective way possible. The scientists are capitalizing on their resources. <span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">**Argue:** The use of transgenic animals is great in theory, but some hinderances hold its benefits back. For example, the products produced from transgenic animals are sometimes slightly different from human proteins. This slight change can result in reactions in patients. The use of transgenic products must be tested thoroughly before being used at all. There are also moral quandaries with the use of this technology, as the fear of harming the animals or those using the product is genuine. The use of GMOs will most likely be incredibly beneficial, but some kinks in the process need to be ironed out before it should be widely used.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 16px/normal Times; letter-spacing: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">Sources: AP Biology textbook, [|__http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/TransgenicAnimals.html__], http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/margawati.html

**Southern Blotting**

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Describe:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Southern blotting looks similar to a sideways barcode on a piece of paper. The lines represent lengths of separated DNA. Southern Blotting involves a restriction enzyme, gel electrophoresis, and probe hybridization. <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Analyze:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> First, DNA is digested with restriction enzymes and separated by gel electrophoresis. Then the DNA is denatured into single strands by incubation with NaOH. Second, the DNA is transfered to a membrane which is a sheet of special blotting paper. The DNA fragments retain the same pattern of separation as they had on the gel. Third, the blot is incubated with many copies of a probe which is single-stranded DNA. The probe will form base pairs with the complementary DNA sequence and bind to form a double stranded DNA molecule. The probe cannot be seen but it is either radioactive or has an enzyme bound to it. Forth, the location of the probe is is reveled by incubating it with a colorless substrate that the enzyme converts to a colored product that gives off light. <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Apply:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> The southern blot is used to verify the presence or absence of a specific nucleotide sequence in the DNA from different sources and to identify the size of the restriction fragment that contains the sequence. <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Synthesize:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I think that southern blotting reminds me of photo development. The blotting paper acts as the photo paper itself and the separated DNA acts as the picture because it gives off color when it is converted by an enzyme. <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Personal opinion:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I believe that southern blotting is a positive thing. I support southern blotting because it can help determine some ones DNA in a crime scene or tell if a person has a gene mutation. <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Source:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> AP Bio text book

<span style="display: block; font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; margin: 0px; text-align: center;"> **Animal cloning**

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Describe it: ** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Animal cloning begins with a cell with removed nucleus. So try to imagine a cell with no DNA or nucleus. Then it is fused with a different nucleus and will form an embryo. An embryo looks like a group of cells that has not reached a recognizable form yet. Animal cloning also uses surrogate mothers which develop the embryo and deliver the offspring

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Analyze:**

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Animal cloning begins with a Egg cell donor and a mammary cell donor. First, Cultured eggs from the mammary cells are semi-starved, which arrest the cell cycle and it causes dedifferentiation. Second, the nucleus is removed from the egg cell’s donors egg. After that the cultured cells are fused into the cell without a nucleus. Then the cell will grow in culture to form the early stages of an embryo. Now, the embryo is implanted into a surrogate mother. A surrogate mother is who will deliver the offspring for another mother. After the embryo is inserted into the surrogate embryonic development will occur and it will turn into an fetus which the surrogate will deliver.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">Several problems have occurred with animal cloning. Only a small percentage of cloned embryos develop normally to birth. Several other cloned animals exhibit birth defects. For example cloned mice are prone to pneumonia, liver failure, and premature death.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Apply:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Animal cloning can be used for a variety of things. Cloned animals such as cattle can be useful in producing superior breed cows.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Synthesize:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I think that cloning animals reminds me of a copy machine. The blank sheet acts as a cell without a nucleus. The original copy acts as mammary cell donor. And the copy machine itself acts as the surrogate mother. The copy machine processes and delivers a carbon copy of the original.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Personal opinion:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I have mixed emotions on animal cloning. I think that the research is very interesting and could be useful. However, I do not think that it should be tested on humans because there are far to many consequences associated with cloning. The percentage rate of success is too low and percentage of abnormalities is very high.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Sources:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> AP Bio book

<span style="display: block; font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; margin: 0px; text-align: center;"> **Transgenic plants**

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Describe:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Transgenic plants look very similar to traditional plants. Transgenic plants have a Ti plasmid which looks like any other plasmid but it contains T DNA.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Analyze:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> To produce transgenic plants you begin with the bacterium //Agrobacterium tumefaciens.// This contains The Ti plasmid. On the Ti plasmid the segment that integrates into the genome of host cells is called T DNA. To begin producing the transgenic plant a restriction enzyme cuts apart at a certain site where the Gene of interest will fit into. Once the gene of interest is in the plasmid it is now called the recombinant plasmid. Recombinant plasmids can be introduced into into cultured plant cells by electroporation. Or the plasmids can be returned to //Agrobacterium//, which is then applied as a liquid to the leaves of the susceptible plants, infecting them. Finally once a plasmid is taken into a plant cell, its T DNA integrates into the cell’s chromosomal DNA. Now a Transgenic plant has been produced.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Apply:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Transgenic plants can be engineered with a bacterial gene making them resistant to herbicides while weeds are destroyed. In some areas of the world the plants are inserted with a salinity resistant gene making allowing them to grow in water three times as salty as sea water.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Synthesize:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Transgenic plants remind me of a flu shot. People get flu shots to become more resistant to the flu. Just like a plant can be inserted with a gene to become more resistant to herbicides.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Personal opinion:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I believe that Transgenic plants have become a huge benefit in our world dealing with food supply. These plants can be engineered to become nutritional. For example, Scientist have developed a rice plant that contain beta-carotene which is our body uses to produce vitamin A. I think that Transgenic Plants are a great invention and will play a large role in the future.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;">**Sources:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Ap Bio book

<span style="display: block; font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; margin: 0px; text-align: center;"> **Genetic profiles** (forensic testing)

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Describe:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Genetic profiles are an individuals unique set of genetic markers that can be tested by PCR, electrophoresis, and nucleic acid probes.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Analyze:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> The Forensic testing method that will be used as my example is gel electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis can be used to match up DNA. It will look different for each set of DNA and restriction enzyme used.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Apply:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Gel electrophoresis is now a very valuable tool for instance in comparing DNA at a crime scene. To conducts this test, a sample of the DNA at the crime scene(blood, semen, or tissue) is needed. Once the DNA at the crime scene is taken, a sample of DNA from the suspect is taken. Then both samples are mixed with the same restriction enzyme. The restriction enzyme cuts DNA at certain points. Then the gel electrophoresis test is conducted. If the results show a match in pattern it means that the Sample from the crime scene matches the suspect.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Opinion:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> I think that Forensic testing is a very valuable resource. DNA testing can identify guilty individuals with a high degree of certainty because everyones DNA is different. DNA testing has also beneficial in proving people innocent. Since 2006, 18 people have been released from prison as a result of the Forensic testing.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Synthesize:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> Genetic profiles and genetic testing can become pretty complex. So the simple thing that I compare it to is fingerprint testing. Like DNA each person has their own unique set of fingerprints. So in forensic testing, the fingerprints can be compared to check for a match.

<span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> **Source:** <span style="font: normal normal normal 12px/normal Helvetica; letter-spacing: 0px; margin: 0px;"> AP Bio book